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Democracyis out, and the monarchy is in! This kind of sentiment was probably not popular in Europe in the 19th and 20th centuries unless you're Charles Maurras. While Maurras was anti-democracy, anti-parliamentary, and decidedly anti-Semitic, he was an important contributor to the field of nationalism. In this article, we will introduce you to Charles Maurras and familiarise you with some of his key ideas about the French state.
Charles Maurras (1868-1952) was a French intellectual and key contributor to nationalism, particularlyintegral nationalism.Born in Provence, France, he grew up in a Catholic family who were strong royalists. At age 12, Maurras was left permanently deaf after falling ill. Afterwards, Maurras sought comfort by reading voraciously. He particularly enjoyed reading the works of Greek and Roman philosophers. At this point, Maurras began to divert from his Catholic upbringing and adopted a more agnostic worldview, though he continued to support the church politically.
Maurras moved to Paris at age 17 after distancing himself from his Catholic upbringing. He began engaging in literary criticism as well as poetry. Maurras co-founded the Roman School, which was a group of poets who embraced a more classical approach to poetry as opposed tosymbolism.
TheDreyfus Affairin France was a turning point in Maurras' political involvement. The affair inspired Maurras' views on topics like the national interest and helped shape his anti-Semitic views. In 1899, Maurras joined Action Français, a journal that opposed the French Revolution and supported the monarchy andintegral nationalism
Symbolismrefers to an artistic movement prevalent in France in the 19th century, in whichlanguage and metaphor are used to represent absolute truths.
Integralnationalismis a form ofright-wingnationalism in which the nation is placed above else. The doctrine promotes intense patriotism and provides little room forindividualism. It is also closely related toExpansionist Nationalism.
The Dreyfus Affair
In 1894, Alfred Dreyfus, a Jewish captain in the French Army, passed French military intelligence to Germany and was accused of treason and imprisoned for life. During Dreyfus' public sentencing, the audience chanted, 'Death to the Jew!'
In 1896, evidence emerged that exonerated Dreyfus of the treason charge (it was another officer that had been sharing secrets with the Germans). However, the authorities suppressed this discovery, further investigation was discouraged, and the new head of intelligence responsible for this discovery (George Picquart) was imprisoned. Despite attempts to prevent further investigations, word began circulating of the possibility that Ferdinand Esterházy was responsible for the treason, not Dreyfus. Esterházy was eventually investigated and quickly found not guilty. Many accused the French Army of covering up their wrongdoing. The affair rocked France to its core, and opinions varied nationwide.
Charles Maurras embraced an anti-Dreyfus position, arguing it was for the good of France that Dreyfus be sacrificed so as not to weaken France's judicial or military system. Maurras also sought the adoption of state anti-Semitism and supported the colonel responsible for falsely accusing Alfred Dreyfus.
Charles Maurras supported hereditary monarchy and believed it was natural for some forms of inequality to exist in society. The monarchy was one of these. Maurras believed the enlightenment had brought with it principles ofliberalismand democracy, which led to the corrosion of French society.
Democracy, according to Maurras, had caused people to begin placing their own needs above the nation's. While many believed democracy improved society, Maurras argued it adversely affected individuals. Maurras believed in placing the nation above all else.
Portrait of Charles Maurras, Studio Harcourt, CC0-1.0, commons.wikimedia.org
To spread his nationalist anti-democracy and anti-parliamentary ideologies, Maurras joined Action Français and became its principal leader and ideologist. Action Français was a journal and a political movement that sought to restore France to its pre-revolutionary state. This desire to return France to its supposed Golden Age made the ideologies of Action Français very backwards-looking and heavily romanticised the vision of the past. Maurras and his supporters used the journal to spread Maurres' ideas of him and his supporters to build support after the events of the Dreyfus Affair.
In February 1934, Action Français, along with other right-wing organisations, organised an anti-democracy riot in Paris. The turmoil led to one of the most significant crises of the Third Republic. The Third Republic refers to France's post-Revolution years (1870-1940). During the protest, 15 anti-parliamentary protestors died in what was described by French Republic supporters as a failed coup.
It was through Action Français that Maurras was able to spread his integralnationalismdoctrine. The group became popular among the royalists and Catholics of France.
Papal Condemnation ofAction Français
Whilst Action Français was popular among Roman Catholics, the fact that it was headed by an agnostic (Charles Maurras) was a cause for concern. Some viewed the group as having a negative influence on young Catholics. In response, the Pope issued a papal condemnation. The Roman Catholic Church banned the text, placing it on a list of prohibited written material. The papal condemnation diminished the credibility and popularity of Action Français and led to its decline.
Charles Maurras was a staunch proponent of integralnationalism- so much so that many eventually referred to it as 'Maurrassism'. His conception of integral nationalism emerged as a counter-revolutionary response to the events of the French Revolution. Maurras believed in a strong state tasked with restoring law and order in the form of integral nationalism. He thought the French Revolution led to a state of decadence, stripping the country of the prestige it formally possessed under the reign of monarchs. For Maurras, removing the monarchy was tantamount to removing the very essence of the French state.
Maurras argued that the decline of French society and the introduction of the liberal ideas of the French Revolution were a result of the infiltration of France by outside groups. Maurras blames Protestants and Jews for bringing these ideas into France that spurred the revolution.
Burning of a royal carriage in the French Revolution 1848, Nathaniel Currier, CC-PD-Mark, Wikimedia Commons
The French Revolution emerged through the adoption of liberal and nationalist ideologies in which the French people no longer viewed themselves as subjects of the crown but rather as citizens of France. The people of France instead believed that the will of the community should be the basis of a government, not the absolute power of a monarch.
The French Revolution aimed to restructure political power and transform the relationship between monarchs and the governed. The philosophers of The Enlightenment Period and the individual rights and freedoms of man inspired the French Revolution. The French Revolution sought to overthrow the hereditary monarchy in favour of a French republic.
Maurras sought to re-establish a cohesive French national identity to combat the view that the country was in national decline. For this to occur, the following changes had to take place:
National interests had to take precedence in politics: those who threatened the good of the nation, such as Jews and protestants, were to be excluded.
The state and the monarchy would be one and the same; French institutions, society and culture must reflect a respect for the monarchy.
The Catholic Church was to play a central role in the culture of France and would serve as a tool for order in society.
In Muarras' conceptions ofnationalism, the Church and the monarchy were to play principal roles. Integralnationalismhas been seen in other countries like Japan and in Italy under Mussolini's regime. Some prominent features of integralnationalisminclude anti-individualism, militarism, chauvinism, and totalitarianism.
Charles Maurras's far-right nationalist ideologies were fraught with racism and anti-Semitism, making him a controversial figure. Maurras supported the fascist Vichy regime, the French national regime that worked alongside Nazi Germany during the Second World War. Maurras viewed Jews as internal enemies of France and sought their exclusion in French society.
Maurras went so far as to make death threats against Léon Blum, the first Jewishprime ministerof France, as Maurras was vehemently opposed to the idea of a Jewishprime minister. Maurras discriminated against Jews, especially after the Dreyfus affair, and he also discriminated against Protestants, Freemasons and those generally considered foreign.
2018年,法国国家commem显示的列表orations for those who had contributed to the country's history. Charles Maurras was on the list. His name sparked national outrage among the French public, as many viewed the commemoration of Maurras as divisive and an act of support for anti-Semitism. Eventually, Maurras was removed from the list.
Charles Maurras published numerous works beginning in 1889 with his final work published posthumously in 1966, several years after his death. Two of his most important books areAnthinea; d'Athènes à Florence(1901) andL'avenir de l'intelligence(1923).
Muarras believed that the nation should become before anything else, and believed France should be restored to its pre-revolutionary state.
Integral Nationalist
Charles Maurras was a right-wing French national credited for developing integral nationalism.
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